Challenges and Solutions in Developing Eco-Friendly Electric Vehicles with Extended Range

This research investigates the challenges and solutions associated with the development and adoption of environmentally friendly electric vehicles (EVs) in Jakarta, Indonesia, a densely populated and rapidly urbanizing city facing pressing environmental and transportation issues. Employing a mixed-methods approach, this study combines quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews and focus group discussions to provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics influencing EV adoption. The findings reveal a relatively high level of awareness of EVs among Jakarta residents, with positive perceptions centered on environmental benefits. However, barriers such as high initial costs and concerns about charging infrastructure availability hinder adoption. Government policies, including incentives and clearer regulatory frameworks, are identified as pivotal drivers for EV adoption. Insights from government officials, industry stakeholders, and consumers emphasize the importance of collaboration to overcome infrastructure challenges and promote electric mobility. The study's recommendations aim to inform policymakers, industry players, and urban planners in their efforts to facilitate the transition to sustainable electric transportation in Jakarta.


INTRODUCTION
Electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as one of the most promising alternatives to traditional fossil fuel-powered cars.Electric vehicles offer the potential to reduce air pollution, cut greenhouse gas emissions, and ease pressure on fossil fuel resources [1], [2].However, the adoption of electric vehicles in Jakarta and other urban areas is a complex challenge characterized by multiple factors, including infrastructure limitations, economic considerations, consumer preferences, and regulatory frameworks [3], [4].In the face of global climate change and growing urbanization, the need for sustainable transportation solutions is becoming increasingly important.As urban centers expand and populations grow, the adverse impacts of internal combustion engine vehicles are becoming increasingly apparent, especially in densely populated cities like Jakarta, Indonesia.Rapid industrialization and population growth have led to a surge in vehicle ownership, exacerbating air pollution and traffic congestion (4,5).Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, provides a poignant case study, grappling with the urgent need to shift to cleaner and more sustainable mobility options [5]- [7].
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, is experiencing rapid population growth and urban sprawl, which has led to severe traffic congestion and deteriorating air quality [8].The city's population is predicted to increase by 3% from 2019 to 2030, reaching around 10,938,900 people [8].This population growth is expected to increase traffic congestion by 3%, from 70% to 72.1%, and air pollution by 3%, from 39.6 to 40.79 [8].Electric vehicles (EVs) offer a potential solution to the environmental and health problems associated with traditional gasoline and diesel cars.EVs are more energy-efficient, produce no exhaust emissions, and can be powered by cleaner energy sources.
By switching to electric mobility, cities like Jakarta have the potential to significantly reduce air pollution levels and contribute to global efforts to combat climate change.To address the traffic congestion and air pollution issues in Jakarta, the city could consider promoting the adoption of electric vehicles, improving public transportation infrastructure, and implementing policies that encourage sustainable urban development [9], [10].Additionally, strict law enforcement on the road and raising public awareness about the importance of traffic order could help improve traffic discipline and reduce congestion [11].

Research Gaps and Significance
This study begins a thorough investigation of the problems and potential fixes related to expanding Jakarta's supply of environmentally friendly electric automobiles.This research intends to shed light on appropriate ways to promote the adoption of electric vehicles as a tool to improve sustainable transportation in this booming city by examining the dynamics of Jakarta's distinctive urban setting and the intricacies of the electric vehicle industry.Although the use of electric vehicles is growing across the globe, Jakarta offers particular difficulties.By examining the unique difficulties and opportunities encountered by Jakarta in its efforts to create a sustainable electric vehicle ecosystem, this study seeks to fill the knowledge vacuum currently in the field.In doing so, the study is anticipated to offer insightful information to researchers, industry stakeholders, urban planners, and policy makers tackling related problems in other metropolitan areas.

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Global Electric Vehicle Landscape
The transition to electric mobility is driven by environmental concerns, as conventional internal combustion engine vehicles contribute significantly to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.Electric vehicles (EVs) offer a cleaner alternative, as they emit no tailpipe pollutants and can potentially reduce greenhouse gas emissions if charged with renewable energy sources [12]- [14].
Studies have shown that EVs can have lower emissions compared to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs).For example, in China, EVs have modest cradle-to-gate CO2 benefits (on average 29%) compared to ICEVs, but have similar carbon emissions relative to hybrid electric vehicles [13].
In Serbia, the average specific emission factor for EVs is almost the same in terms of CO2 (194.7 g/km) compared to ICEVs (159.6 g/km), while in the case of NOX, the specific emissions factors for EVs almost double, from 0.71 to 1.30 g/km3.However, decarbonizing the national power grid is necessary to achieve net-zero emissions with a complete replacement of the fleet with EVs [14].The transition to electric mobility can also have positive impacts on energy consumption and cost savings.In Malaysia, EVs were found to consume 30% less energy than ICEVs and achieve a 26% energy cost saving for long-distance highway travel [15].In urban areas, EVs can provide even higher energy and cost savings, with 86% and 64% respectively9.Light electric freight vehicles (LEFVs) and cargo bikes can also offer a solution for urban freight flows, as they occupy less space, can be maneuvered easily, and do not emit tailpipe pollutants [16].Parcel and food deliveries have high potential for using LEFVs, while deliveries related to services and the last phase of construction work can also be switched to LEFVs [16].In conclusion, electric mobility offers a cleaner alternative to conventional vehicles, with the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution.
However, the extent of these benefits depends on the energy sources used to charge EVs and the specific conditions in each country.
The growing global electric vehicle (EV) market presents various economic opportunities for governments and industries around the world.These opportunities include job creation, innovation, and reduced dependence on imported fossil fuels.In addition to the environmental benefits, incentives such as tax rebates and subsidies further encourage consumer adoption of EVs [17].Job creation can be seen in various sectors related to EVs, such as manufacturing, research and development, and charging infrastructure.For example, the region of Jalisco, Mexico, is home to more than 650 high-tech corporations, exporting a total value of USD 21 billion annually in tech products and services, with micro and small and medium enterprises being a significant part of their companies [18].
The electric vehicle industry involves various technological cooperative innovations, which require collaboration between enterprises within the industry and research institutions [19].
Innovation in the EV market can lead to advancements in battery technology, charging infrastructure, and vehicle design.For instance, a large-scale solar EV concept has been proposed, which involves integrating low-cost, flexible, and thin-film solar cells onto the steel of all upwardfacing vehicle body panels.This could help mitigate EV charging and range concerns, as well as the high cost and solar power intermittency of individual residential rooftop solar installations [20].
Reduced dependence on imported fossil fuels can be achieved through the widespread adoption of EVs, which rely on electricity rather than gasoline or diesel.This shift can lead to increased energy security and a more diversified energy mix, as countries can generate electricity from various sources, including renewable energy [21].

Challenges in Urban Electric Vehicle Adoption
One of the key challenges in urban electric vehicle (EV) adoption is the development of charging infrastructure.Adequate and strategically located charging stations are essential to reduce range anxiety and encourage the use of electric vehicles.Rapid expansion of the charging network is especially important for densely populated urban areas such as Jakarta, where parking and space constraints are common [22] .Electric vehicles often have higher initial costs compared to traditional vehicles, mainly due to the cost of batteries [23].To address the challenge of deciding where to build solar-assisted charging stations in a city and how to size them, a study proposed an approach to efficiently decide the locations and sizes of solar energy-assisted charging stations for an urban area [22].
The method takes into account factors such as construction cost, solar energy fluctuation, and user requirements.Experiments conducted on real EV history data from 297 users of an EV leasing company showed that the proposed method can produce high-quality decisions within reasonable computation time [22].Optimal placement of EV charging stations in utility grids is also crucial to ensure a reliable long trip for personal and public needs [24].If not placed suitably to the utility grid, these highly dynamic loads may result in increased losses, voltage drops, and loss of power system reliability [24].The placement of EV charging stations depends on factors such as statutory norms, optimal power flow, EV range considerations, and various other factors [24].In Nigeria, a study investigated the technical and economic feasibility of an electrical vehicle (EV) charging scheme based on the availability of renewable energy (RE) sources in six sites representing diverse geographic and climatic conditions [25].The study found that the PV/WT/battery charging station with a quantity of two wind turbines, 174 kW of PV panels, a quantity of 380 batteries storage, and a converter of 109 kW located in Sokoto provided the best economic metrics with the lowest